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DOI: 10.1148/rg.26si065513
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RadioGraphics 2006;26:S173-S189
© RSNA, 2006

Advanced MR Imaging Techniques in the Diagnosis of Intraaxial Brain Tumors in Adults1

Riyadh N. Al-Okaili, MD, Jaroslaw Krejza, MD, PhD2, Sumei Wang, MD, John H. Woo, MD and Elias R. Melhem, MD, PhD

1 From the Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 3400 Spruce St, Dulles 2, Philadelphia, PA 19104. Received May 17, 2006; revision requested June 14 and received July 10; accepted July 13. All authors have no financial relationships to disclose. Address correspondence to E.R.M. (e-mail: Elias.Melhem{at}uphs.upenn.edu).


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Introduction
 Advanced MR Imaging Features...
 Integrated Conventional and...
 Conclusions
 References
 
Intraaxial brain masses are a significant health problem and present several imaging challenges. The role of imaging is no longer limited to merely providing anatomic details. Sophisticated magnetic resonance (MR) imaging techniques allow insight into such processes as the freedom of water molecule movement, the microvascular integrity and hemodynamic characteristics, and the chemical makeup of certain compounds of masses. The role of the most commonly used advanced MR imaging techniques—perfusion imaging, diffusion-weighted imaging, and MR spectroscopy—in the diagnosis and classification of the most common intraaxial brain tumors in adults is explored. These lesions include primary neoplasms (high- and low-grade), secondary (meta-static) neoplasms, lymphoma, tumefactive demyelinating lesions, abscesses, and encephalitis. Application of a diagnostic algorithm that integrates advanced MR imaging features with conventional MR imaging findings may help the practicing radiologist make a more specific diagnosis for an intraaxial tumor.

© RSNA, 2006


   LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Top
 Abstract
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Introduction
 Advanced MR Imaging Features...
 Integrated Conventional and...
 Conclusions
 References
 
After reading this article and taking the test, the reader will be able to:


   Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Introduction
Advanced MR Imaging Features...
 Integrated Conventional and...
 Conclusions
 References
 
Intracranial tumors are a significant health problem. The annual incidence of primary and secondary central nervous system neoplasms ranges from 10 to 17 per 100,000 persons. The American Cancer Society and the Primary Brain Tumors in the United States Statistical Report projected that in 2005 in the United States, an estimated 12,760 deaths from intracranial tumors would occur, and that an estimated 43,800 new cases of primary nonmalignant and malignant central nervous system tumors would be diagnosed, respectively.

Imaging plays an integral role in intracranial tumor management. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging in particular has emerged as the imaging modality most frequently used to evaluate intracranial tumors, and it continues to have an ever-expanding, multifaceted role. In general, the role of MR imaging in the workup of intraaxial tumors can be broadly divided into tumor diagnosis and classification, treatment planning, and posttreatment surveillance.

In addition to conventional MR imaging techniques, a variety of advanced techniques have found their place in clinical practice or are the subject of intense research. These advanced techniques offer more than the anatomic information provided by the conventional MR imaging sequences. They generate physiologic data and information on chemical composition. The current advanced techniques include perfusion imaging, diffusion-weighted imaging (including diffusion-tensor imaging), MR spectroscopy, blood oxygen level–dependent (BOLD) imaging, and the largely experimental molecular imaging. Currently, the first three techniques are more commonly used.

Discrimination of extraaxial and intraaxial brain tumors is relatively easy with only anatomic imaging; however, the major diagnostic challenge is to reliably, noninvasively, and promptly differentiate intraaxial tumors to avoid biopsy and follow-up imaging studies. Integration of diagnostic information from advanced MR imaging techniques can further improve the classification accuracy of conventional anatomic imaging.

This article focuses on the role of the most commonly used advanced MR imaging techniques—perfusion imaging, diffusion-weighted imaging, and MR spectroscopy—for the diagnosis and classification of the most common intraaxial brain tumors in adults. We conclude by presenting a practical diagnostic algorithm that integrates advanced MR imaging features to help the practicing radiologist make a more specific diagnosis for an intraaxial tumor.


   Advanced MR Imaging Features of Common Intraaxial Tumors
Top
 Abstract
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Introduction
 Advanced MR Imaging Features...
Integrated Conventional and...
 Conclusions
 References
 
In the largest stereotactic brain biopsy series, the most common intraaxial brain masses were high-grade primary neoplasms (36% of cases), low-grade primary neoplasms (33%), metastases (8%), lymphoma (5%), demyelinating and inflammatory conditions (3%), infarcts (2%), and abscesses (1%) (1). In the largest stereotactic brain biopsy series, to our knowledge, of nonenhancing brain lesions, the following pathologic conditions were encountered: gliomas, tumefactive demyelinating lesions, and encephalitis (2). Thus herein, we provide a review of the advanced MR imaging features of the following common intraaxial tumors and tumorlike processes in adults: primary neoplasms (high- and low-grade), secondary (metastatic) neoplasms, lymphoma, tumefactive demyelinating lesions, abscesses, and encephalitis.

The location of advanced imaging interrogation can influence the findings, and, unless otherwise indicated, the imaging features described are from solid portions of the lesions. In addition, as in any imaging study, an understanding of limitations and confounding factors is essential to avoid misinterpretation. The features described in this article do not apply for hemorrhagic lesions.

Primary (Non-lymphomatous) Neoplasms
The most common primary brain neoplasms are of glial origin. Low-grade glial neoplasms occur most often in patients aged 20–40 years, whereas high-grade glial lesions occur in older adults who tend to have shorter survival. Currently, high-grade glial neoplasms are differentiated from low-grade ones by pathologic evidence of increasing cellular atypia, nuclear pleomorphism, neovascular proliferation, and necrosis.

MR Spectroscopy.— The typical proton MR spectroscopic features for primary neoplasms are elevated peaks of lipid, lactate, choline, and myoinositol and reduced NAA signal, summarized in the Table and illustrated in Figures 1–6.


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  		Typical Advanced MR Imaging Features of Intraaxial Brain Tumors

 

Figure 1
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  		Figure 1a.  Right frontal anaplastic oligoastrocytoma (World Health Organization [WHO] grade III) in a 39-year-old man. The diagnosis was proved at biopsy. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a nonenhancing right frontal mass. (b) On an axial relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV) map, there is elevated rTBV compared with contralateral normal brain tissue, especially at the posterior periphery of the lesion. (c) Intermediate-echo MR spectrum shows a decrease in the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). (d, e) These observations are further illustrated with spectroscopic color maps of the NAA/creatine (d) and choline/creatine (e) ratios.

 

Figure 1
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  		Figure 1b.  Right frontal anaplastic oligoastrocytoma (World Health Organization [WHO] grade III) in a 39-year-old man. The diagnosis was proved at biopsy. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a nonenhancing right frontal mass. (b) On an axial relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV) map, there is elevated rTBV compared with contralateral normal brain tissue, especially at the posterior periphery of the lesion. (c) Intermediate-echo MR spectrum shows a decrease in the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). (d, e) These observations are further illustrated with spectroscopic color maps of the NAA/creatine (d) and choline/creatine (e) ratios.

 

Figure 1
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  		Figure 1c.  Right frontal anaplastic oligoastrocytoma (World Health Organization [WHO] grade III) in a 39-year-old man. The diagnosis was proved at biopsy. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a nonenhancing right frontal mass. (b) On an axial relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV) map, there is elevated rTBV compared with contralateral normal brain tissue, especially at the posterior periphery of the lesion. (c) Intermediate-echo MR spectrum shows a decrease in the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). (d, e) These observations are further illustrated with spectroscopic color maps of the NAA/creatine (d) and choline/creatine (e) ratios.

 

Figure 1
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  		Figure 1d.  Right frontal anaplastic oligoastrocytoma (World Health Organization [WHO] grade III) in a 39-year-old man. The diagnosis was proved at biopsy. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a nonenhancing right frontal mass. (b) On an axial relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV) map, there is elevated rTBV compared with contralateral normal brain tissue, especially at the posterior periphery of the lesion. (c) Intermediate-echo MR spectrum shows a decrease in the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). (d, e) These observations are further illustrated with spectroscopic color maps of the NAA/creatine (d) and choline/creatine (e) ratios.

 

Figure 1
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  		Figure 1e.  Right frontal anaplastic oligoastrocytoma (World Health Organization [WHO] grade III) in a 39-year-old man. The diagnosis was proved at biopsy. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a nonenhancing right frontal mass. (b) On an axial relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV) map, there is elevated rTBV compared with contralateral normal brain tissue, especially at the posterior periphery of the lesion. (c) Intermediate-echo MR spectrum shows a decrease in the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). (d, e) These observations are further illustrated with spectroscopic color maps of the NAA/creatine (d) and choline/creatine (e) ratios.

 

Figure 2
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  		Figure 2a.  Left parietal glioblastoma multiforme (WHO grade IV) in a 59-year-old woman. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a heterogeneously enhancing, necrotic mass. (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows a mixture of facilitated and restricted diffusion (a similar appearance was observed on the axial ADC maps, not shown here). (c) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows elevated cerebral blood flow compared with that in contralateral normal brain tissue. (d) Single-voxel short-echo MR proton spectrum of the lesion shows depression of the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks, elevation of the lactate (Lac) and/or lipid peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). (e) These observations are further illustrated with intermediate-echo spectroscopic color maps of the NAA/choline ratio.

 

Figure 2
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  		Figure 2b.  Left parietal glioblastoma multiforme (WHO grade IV) in a 59-year-old woman. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a heterogeneously enhancing, necrotic mass. (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows a mixture of facilitated and restricted diffusion (a similar appearance was observed on the axial ADC maps, not shown here). (c) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows elevated cerebral blood flow compared with that in contralateral normal brain tissue. (d) Single-voxel short-echo MR proton spectrum of the lesion shows depression of the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks, elevation of the lactate (Lac) and/or lipid peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). (e) These observations are further illustrated with intermediate-echo spectroscopic color maps of the NAA/choline ratio.

 

Figure 2
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  		Figure 2c.  Left parietal glioblastoma multiforme (WHO grade IV) in a 59-year-old woman. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a heterogeneously enhancing, necrotic mass. (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows a mixture of facilitated and restricted diffusion (a similar appearance was observed on the axial ADC maps, not shown here). (c) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows elevated cerebral blood flow compared with that in contralateral normal brain tissue. (d) Single-voxel short-echo MR proton spectrum of the lesion shows depression of the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks, elevation of the lactate (Lac) and/or lipid peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). (e) These observations are further illustrated with intermediate-echo spectroscopic color maps of the NAA/choline ratio.

 

Figure 2
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  		Figure 2d.  Left parietal glioblastoma multiforme (WHO grade IV) in a 59-year-old woman. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a heterogeneously enhancing, necrotic mass. (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows a mixture of facilitated and restricted diffusion (a similar appearance was observed on the axial ADC maps, not shown here). (c) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows elevated cerebral blood flow compared with that in contralateral normal brain tissue. (d) Single-voxel short-echo MR proton spectrum of the lesion shows depression of the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks, elevation of the lactate (Lac) and/or lipid peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). (e) These observations are further illustrated with intermediate-echo spectroscopic color maps of the NAA/choline ratio.

 

Figure 2
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  		Figure 2e.  Left parietal glioblastoma multiforme (WHO grade IV) in a 59-year-old woman. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a heterogeneously enhancing, necrotic mass. (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows a mixture of facilitated and restricted diffusion (a similar appearance was observed on the axial ADC maps, not shown here). (c) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows elevated cerebral blood flow compared with that in contralateral normal brain tissue. (d) Single-voxel short-echo MR proton spectrum of the lesion shows depression of the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks, elevation of the lactate (Lac) and/or lipid peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). (e) These observations are further illustrated with intermediate-echo spectroscopic color maps of the NAA/choline ratio.

 

Figure 3
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  		Figure 3a.  Bifrontal glioblastoma multiforme (WHO grade IV) in a 79-year-old woman. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image with overlying spectroscopic grid demonstrates a heterogeneously enhancing, necrotic mass. (b, c) Multivoxel short-echo MR proton spectra show depression of the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks, elevation of the lactate (Lac) and/or lipid peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm) within the enhancing portion of the mass, as seen in voxel 10 (outlined with a white frame in a). There is also evidence of peritumoral infiltration, as voxel 23 (outlined with a black frame in a)— which is beyond the enhancing portion of the lesion—shows the choline/NAA ratio >1.

 

Figure 3
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  		Figure 3b.  Bifrontal glioblastoma multiforme (WHO grade IV) in a 79-year-old woman. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image with overlying spectroscopic grid demonstrates a heterogeneously enhancing, necrotic mass. (b, c) Multivoxel short-echo MR proton spectra show depression of the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks, elevation of the lactate (Lac) and/or lipid peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm) within the enhancing portion of the mass, as seen in voxel 10 (outlined with a white frame in a). There is also evidence of peritumoral infiltration, as voxel 23 (outlined with a black frame in a)— which is beyond the enhancing portion of the lesion—shows the choline/NAA ratio >1.

 

Figure 3
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  		Figure 3c.  Bifrontal glioblastoma multiforme (WHO grade IV) in a 79-year-old woman. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image with overlying spectroscopic grid demonstrates a heterogeneously enhancing, necrotic mass. (b, c) Multivoxel short-echo MR proton spectra show depression of the NAA (at 2.02 ppm) and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks, elevation of the lactate (Lac) and/or lipid peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm) within the enhancing portion of the mass, as seen in voxel 10 (outlined with a white frame in a). There is also evidence of peritumoral infiltration, as voxel 23 (outlined with a black frame in a)— which is beyond the enhancing portion of the lesion—shows the choline/NAA ratio >1.

 

Figure 4
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  		Figure 4a.  Right frontal low-grade oligodendroglioma (WHO grade II) in a 35-year-old man. (a) FLAIR image shows a nonenhancing T2 hyperintense mass (similar appearance observed on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images, not shown here). (b) Axial ADC map shows facilitated diffusion. (c) Short-echo MR proton spectrum shows an elevated myoinositol (mI) peak (at 3.55 ppm). Cho = choline, Cr = creatine.

 

Figure 4
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  		Figure 4b.  Right frontal low-grade oligodendroglioma (WHO grade II) in a 35-year-old man. (a) FLAIR image shows a nonenhancing T2 hyperintense mass (similar appearance observed on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images, not shown here). (b) Axial ADC map shows facilitated diffusion. (c) Short-echo MR proton spectrum shows an elevated myoinositol (mI) peak (at 3.55 ppm). Cho = choline, Cr = creatine.

 

Figure 4
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  		Figure 4c.  Right frontal low-grade oligodendroglioma (WHO grade II) in a 35-year-old man. (a) FLAIR image shows a nonenhancing T2 hyperintense mass (similar appearance observed on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images, not shown here). (b) Axial ADC map shows facilitated diffusion. (c) Short-echo MR proton spectrum shows an elevated myoinositol (mI) peak (at 3.55 ppm). Cho = choline, Cr = creatine.

 

Figure 5
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  		Figure 5a.  Left temporal ganglioglioma in a 32-year-old man. (a) Fluid-attenuated inversion-recovery (FLAIR) MR image with overlying spectroscopic grid shows a T2 hyperintense mass. No enhancement was seen on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images (not shown). (b) Short-echo MR proton spectrum shows an elevated myoinositol (mI) peak (at 3.55 ppm). Cho = choline, Cr = creatine. (c) Multivoxel intermediate-echo MR proton spectroscopic color map of the choline/NAA ratio shows choline/NAA elevation.

 

Figure 5
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  		Figure 5b.  Left temporal ganglioglioma in a 32-year-old man. (a) Fluid-attenuated inversion-recovery (FLAIR) MR image with overlying spectroscopic grid shows a T2 hyperintense mass. No enhancement was seen on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images (not shown). (b) Short-echo MR proton spectrum shows an elevated myoinositol (mI) peak (at 3.55 ppm). Cho = choline, Cr = creatine. (c) Multivoxel intermediate-echo MR proton spectroscopic color map of the choline/NAA ratio shows choline/NAA elevation.

 

Figure 5
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  		Figure 5c.  Left temporal ganglioglioma in a 32-year-old man. (a) Fluid-attenuated inversion-recovery (FLAIR) MR image with overlying spectroscopic grid shows a T2 hyperintense mass. No enhancement was seen on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images (not shown). (b) Short-echo MR proton spectrum shows an elevated myoinositol (mI) peak (at 3.55 ppm). Cho = choline, Cr = creatine. (c) Multivoxel intermediate-echo MR proton spectroscopic color map of the choline/NAA ratio shows choline/NAA elevation.

 

Figure 6
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  		Figure 6a.  Bihemispheric gliomatosis cerebri in a 53-year-old woman. (a) FLAIR image shows a T2 hyper-intense nonenhancing mass involving both hemispheres (similar appearance observed on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images, not shown here). (b) On the axial rCBV map, the rTBV is lower than that of normal brain tissue (ratio = 0.83). (c) Short-echo MR proton spectrum shows elevated levels of creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) and myoinositol (mI) (at 3.55 ppm), a reduced level of NAA (at 2.02 ppm), and a mildly elevated level of choline (Cho) (at 3.2 ppm).

 

Figure 6
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  		Figure 6b.  Bihemispheric gliomatosis cerebri in a 53-year-old woman. (a) FLAIR image shows a T2 hyper-intense nonenhancing mass involving both hemispheres (similar appearance observed on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images, not shown here). (b) On the axial rCBV map, the rTBV is lower than that of normal brain tissue (ratio = 0.83). (c) Short-echo MR proton spectrum shows elevated levels of creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) and myoinositol (mI) (at 3.55 ppm), a reduced level of NAA (at 2.02 ppm), and a mildly elevated level of choline (Cho) (at 3.2 ppm).

 

Figure 6
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  		Figure 6c.  Bihemispheric gliomatosis cerebri in a 53-year-old woman. (a) FLAIR image shows a T2 hyper-intense nonenhancing mass involving both hemispheres (similar appearance observed on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images, not shown here). (b) On the axial rCBV map, the rTBV is lower than that of normal brain tissue (ratio = 0.83). (c) Short-echo MR proton spectrum shows elevated levels of creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) and myoinositol (mI) (at 3.55 ppm), a reduced level of NAA (at 2.02 ppm), and a mildly elevated level of choline (Cho) (at 3.2 ppm).

 
The metabolites responsible for the NAA signal are predominantly found in neurons. Thus, reduction in the NAA signal in neoplasms arises from reduced or absent production of these metabolites because normal neurons have been destroyed or displaced by the neoplastic process.

The prevailing view is that an elevated choline peak is a surrogate marker of increased cell membrane turnover caused by tumor growth or normal cell destruction; however, an alternative view suggests that the choline signal may at least in part be elevated because of increased production through phospholipase upregulation.

The relative anaerobic environment of many neoplasms and derangements in glucose metabolism result in incomplete glucose breakdown and likely account for the elevated lactate signal (Figs 2d, 3b) (3,4).

Unfortunately, there are no unequivocal cutoff metabolite signal ratios that clearly distinguish neoplastic from nonneoplastic conditions. Published MR spectroscopic results showed a sensitivity of 79% and a specificity of 77% for a choline/NAA ratio of greater than 1 as an indicator of a neoplastic process (5). A sensitivity of 87% and a specificity of 85% were achieved by using a logistical regression model with 10 input MR spectroscopic variables (5). In our review of the literature, we were unable to find a reliable spectroscopic feature that distinguishes nonneoplastic from neoplastic conditions. However, we did find that a choline/NAA cutoff ratio of 2.2 does reliably separate high-grade neoplasms from low-grade neoplasms and nonneoplastic conditions (Figs 1c–1e, 2d, 2e, 3b, 4c).

Analysis of other metabolite peaks can also aid in grading primary neoplasms. High-grade neoplasms tend to have elevated lipid signal, which is often absent in low-grade neoplasms (Figs 2d, 3b, 4c, 5b) (6–9). On the other hand, a high myoinositol peak is more characteristic of lower grade neoplasms and gliomatosis cerebri (the latter are WHO grade III tumors but have advanced MR imaging features that are more in line with those of low-grade neoplasms) (Fig 6c) (7).

Diffusion-weighted Imaging.— The typical diffusion-weighted imaging feature for primary neoplasms is variable apparent diffusion coefficients (ADCs) (Table). The ADC is inversely proportional to cellular density, presumably because of tortuousity of the interstitial space and the resultant limitation in water movement (10–12). Although the ADC value of high-grade gliomas has been shown to be lower than that of low-grade gliomas (13), there is substantial overlap; thus, ADC maps alone are insufficient for predicting type and grade of glial neoplasms (Figs 2b, 4b) (14). These comments may not apply to brain masses in children.

Perfusion Imaging.— The typical perfusion imaging feature for primary neoplasms is a relative tumor blood volume (rTBV) that tends to increase with neoplasm grade (Table).

Perfusion imaging allows some insight into angiogenesis, a process essential for neoplastic growth. Neoplastic induced angiogenesis results in structurally abnormal vessels that tend to be leaky, and thus neoplasms have increased permeability parameters on perfusion MR images. Several studies have shown that the grade of the neoplasm correlates with tumor blood volume (Figs 1b, 2c, 6b) (6,15–18). An rTBV of 1.75 was suggested as a cutoff threshold to distinguish a high-grade from a low-grade neoplasm (6), where rTBV is measured as a ratio of the maximal tumor blood volume to a region of interest in normal white matter. An important exception is low-grade glial neoplasms with oligodendroglial features, which may have markedly elevated rTBV (19). Markedly elevated rTBV has been observed in particular with low-grade oligodendrogliomas and oligoastrocytomas with 1p deletion.

Secondary (Metastatic) Neoplasms
MR Spectroscopy.— Typical MR spectroscopic features for secondary neoplasms include elevated signals of lipid, lactate, and choline and reduced or absent NAA signal (Table), illustrated in Figure 7.


Figure 7
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  		Figure 7a.  Metastatic renal cell cancer in a 73-year-old man. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a heterogeneously enhancing small mass in the posterior left frontal lobe with extensive surrounding T2 hyperintensity. (b) Axial diffusion-weighted map shows predominantly facilitated diffusion with a small crescent-shaped area of restricted diffusion that had an ADC value of 1.04 x 10–3 mm2/sec). (c) On an axial rCBV map, the rTBV is elevated (ratio = 6.27).

 

Figure 7
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  		Figure 7b.  Metastatic renal cell cancer in a 73-year-old man. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a heterogeneously enhancing small mass in the posterior left frontal lobe with extensive surrounding T2 hyperintensity. (b) Axial diffusion-weighted map shows predominantly facilitated diffusion with a small crescent-shaped area of restricted diffusion that had an ADC value of 1.04 x 10–3 mm2/sec). (c) On an axial rCBV map, the rTBV is elevated (ratio = 6.27).

 

Figure 7
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  		Figure 7c.  Metastatic renal cell cancer in a 73-year-old man. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a heterogeneously enhancing small mass in the posterior left frontal lobe with extensive surrounding T2 hyperintensity. (b) Axial diffusion-weighted map shows predominantly facilitated diffusion with a small crescent-shaped area of restricted diffusion that had an ADC value of 1.04 x 10–3 mm2/sec). (c) On an axial rCBV map, the rTBV is elevated (ratio = 6.27).

 
Distinguishing metastases from high-grade primary neoplasm with spectroscopic interrogation of the enhancing portion of the tumor is unreliable, even though it has been shown by some to be possible by looking for a higher degree of lipid signal in metastatic lesions (7,8). In contrast, because primary neoplasms have the propensity to infiltrate surrounding brain tissue, interrogation of areas outside the enhancing portion of the lesion has proved to be more promising (20,21). Various metabolite signal ratios have been suggested for this purpose. In one study, a choline/NAA ratio of greater than 1 had an accuracy of 100% (20) (Fig 3).

Diffusion-weighted Imaging.— The typical diffusion-weighted imaging feature for secondary neoplasms is an elevated ADC (Table). The ADC values of metastatic lesions are variable and overlap with those of primary neoplasms (Fig 7b) (14). However, it is possible to separate metastasis from primary brain neoplasm by measuring ADC values in the peritumoral regions. Recently, it has been shown that, because of neoplastic infiltration in primary neoplasms, peritumoral diffusion-tensor imaging tends to show lower ADC values in regions of peritumoral "edema" compared with those seen with metastatic disease (22).

Perfusion Imaging.— The typical perfusion imaging feature for secondary, metastatic lesions is an elevated rTBV (Table). As is the case for primary neoplasms, the ability of metastases to induce angiogenesis is crucial for metastatic lesion growth. Perfusion parameters of metastatic lesions tend to overlap with those of high-grade neoplasms, probably because of their similarity in the degree of angiogenesis. One possible feature that might allow differentiation between secondary and primary neoplasms is that metastatic lesions have lower rTBV measurements outside their enhancing portion, compared with those of the more infiltrative primary neoplasms (21,23).

Lymphoma
Primary central nervous system lymphoma accounts for 2% of extranodal lymphomas. The peak prevalence of primary central nervous system lymphoma occurs between the 5th and 6th decades of life. It is commonly associated with immunodeficiency states including acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

MR Spectroscopy.— Typical proton MR spectroscopic features for lymphoma include elevated signals of lipid, lactate, and choline and reduced NAA signal (Table), illustrated in Figure 8.


Figure 8
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  		Figure 8a.  Primary central nervous system lymphoma in a 50-year-old woman. (a, b) Axial post-contrast T1-weighted MR image (a) demonstrates a homogeneously enhancing mass in the right frontal lobe, which is isointense on the axial fluid-attenuated inversion-recovery MR image (b), with extensive surrounding T2 hyperintensity. (c) Axial ADC map shows restricted diffusion (lowest ADC value obtained was 0.82 x 10–3 mm2/sec).

 

Figure 8
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  		Figure 8b.  Primary central nervous system lymphoma in a 50-year-old woman. (a, b) Axial post-contrast T1-weighted MR image (a) demonstrates a homogeneously enhancing mass in the right frontal lobe, which is isointense on the axial fluid-attenuated inversion-recovery MR image (b), with extensive surrounding T2 hyperintensity. (c) Axial ADC map shows restricted diffusion (lowest ADC value obtained was 0.82 x 10–3 mm2/sec).

 

Figure 8
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  		Figure 8c.  Primary central nervous system lymphoma in a 50-year-old woman. (a, b) Axial post-contrast T1-weighted MR image (a) demonstrates a homogeneously enhancing mass in the right frontal lobe, which is isointense on the axial fluid-attenuated inversion-recovery MR image (b), with extensive surrounding T2 hyperintensity. (c) Axial ADC map shows restricted diffusion (lowest ADC value obtained was 0.82 x 10–3 mm2/sec).

 
MR spectroscopy of lymphoma in AIDS patients revealed mild to moderately increased lactate and lipid signals, along with a prominent choline peak and decreased NAA, creatine, and myoinositol signals (24,25). This pattern can help in differentiating lymphoma from toxoplasmosis, which typically has elevated lactate and lipid signals but absence of the other metabolites in MR spectra (26).

Diffusion-weighted Imaging.— The typical diffusion-weighted imaging feature for lymphoma is reduced ADC (Table). Lymphoma tends to have a low ADC due to its cellularity. This feature can help in differentiating lymphoma from toxoplasmosis, which typically has significantly greater ADC values than lymphoma lesions (Fig 8c) (27). A low ADC value would also favor lymphoma over glial tumors.

Perfusion Imaging.— The typical perfusion imaging feature for lymphoma is an rTBV that is low compared with that of primary high-grade neoplasms and high relative to toxoplasmosis (Table).

Differentiation of lymphoma and primary high-grade glial neoplasms is feasible because lymphoma tends to have a lower rTBV (23,28, 29), and the intensity time curves for lymphoma tend to be substantially below the baseline (29). However, lymphoma tends to show higher rTBV compared with toxoplasmosis (30).

Tumefactive Demyelinating Lesions
Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune demyelinating disorder characterized by distinct episodes of neurologic deficits, separated in time and space. It affects millions of patients worldwide and approximately 250,000–350,000 in the United States alone. Symptoms usually begin during young adulthood. Acute monophasic syndromes include the Marburg variant of multiple sclerosis, Baló’s concentric sclerosis, and other focal tumefactive demyelinating lesions that may simulate brain tumors. A specific diagnosis that distinguishes among these rare syndromes early in the course of disease has prognostic and treatment implications.

MR Spectroscopy.— Typical proton MR spectroscopic features for tumefactive demyelinating lesions include an elevated choline peak and reduced NAA signal (Table), as illustrated in Figure 9.


Figure 9
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  		Figure 9a.  Periventricular tumefactive demyelinating lesion in a 38-year-old woman. (a) FLAIR image shows a well-defined T2 hyperintense enhancing lesion (similar appearance observed on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images, not shown here). (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows restricted diffusion. (c) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows no elevation of flow compared with contralateral normal white matter. (d) Single-voxel intermediate-echo MR proton spectrum shows mild depression of the NAA peak (at 2.02 ppm), absence of the lactate peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). Cr = creatine. (e, f) These findings are further illustrated with spectroscopic color maps of NAA and the choline/creatine ratios.

 

Figure 9
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  		Figure 9b.  Periventricular tumefactive demyelinating lesion in a 38-year-old woman. (a) FLAIR image shows a well-defined T2 hyperintense enhancing lesion (similar appearance observed on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images, not shown here). (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows restricted diffusion. (c) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows no elevation of flow compared with contralateral normal white matter. (d) Single-voxel intermediate-echo MR proton spectrum shows mild depression of the NAA peak (at 2.02 ppm), absence of the lactate peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). Cr = creatine. (e, f) These findings are further illustrated with spectroscopic color maps of NAA and the choline/creatine ratios.

 

Figure 9
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  		Figure 9c.  Periventricular tumefactive demyelinating lesion in a 38-year-old woman. (a) FLAIR image shows a well-defined T2 hyperintense enhancing lesion (similar appearance observed on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images, not shown here). (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows restricted diffusion. (c) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows no elevation of flow compared with contralateral normal white matter. (d) Single-voxel intermediate-echo MR proton spectrum shows mild depression of the NAA peak (at 2.02 ppm), absence of the lactate peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). Cr = creatine. (e, f) These findings are further illustrated with spectroscopic color maps of NAA and the choline/creatine ratios.

 

Figure 9
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  		Figure 9d.  Periventricular tumefactive demyelinating lesion in a 38-year-old woman. (a) FLAIR image shows a well-defined T2 hyperintense enhancing lesion (similar appearance observed on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images, not shown here). (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows restricted diffusion. (c) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows no elevation of flow compared with contralateral normal white matter. (d) Single-voxel intermediate-echo MR proton spectrum shows mild depression of the NAA peak (at 2.02 ppm), absence of the lactate peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). Cr = creatine. (e, f) These findings are further illustrated with spectroscopic color maps of NAA and the choline/creatine ratios.

 

Figure 9
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  		Figure 9e.  Periventricular tumefactive demyelinating lesion in a 38-year-old woman. (a) FLAIR image shows a well-defined T2 hyperintense enhancing lesion (similar appearance observed on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images, not shown here). (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows restricted diffusion. (c) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows no elevation of flow compared with contralateral normal white matter. (d) Single-voxel intermediate-echo MR proton spectrum shows mild depression of the NAA peak (at 2.02 ppm), absence of the lactate peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). Cr = creatine. (e, f) These findings are further illustrated with spectroscopic color maps of NAA and the choline/creatine ratios.

 

Figure 9
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  		Figure 9f.  Periventricular tumefactive demyelinating lesion in a 38-year-old woman. (a) FLAIR image shows a well-defined T2 hyperintense enhancing lesion (similar appearance observed on postcontrast T1-weighted MR images, not shown here). (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows restricted diffusion. (c) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows no elevation of flow compared with contralateral normal white matter. (d) Single-voxel intermediate-echo MR proton spectrum shows mild depression of the NAA peak (at 2.02 ppm), absence of the lactate peak (at 1.33 ppm), and elevation of the choline (Cho) peak (at 3.2 ppm). Cr = creatine. (e, f) These findings are further illustrated with spectroscopic color maps of NAA and the choline/creatine ratios.

 
A fulminant tumefactive demyelinating lesion may show high choline and low NAA signals as well as presence of lactate (31). Often, it is difficult to distinguish a tumefactive demyelinating lesion from neoplastic lesions at MR spectroscopy (Fig 9d–9f) (31,32). In multiple sclerosis, the spectroscopic abnormalities are not limited to visible lesions, since normal-appearing areas of white matter were shown to have reduced NAA signal (compared with NAA signals in healthy control subjects). In the early stages of the disease, an increased myoinositol peak may be more apparent in normal-appearing white matter than reduced NAA signal.

Diffusion-weighted Imaging.— The typical diffusion-weighted imaging feature for tumefactive demyelinating lesion is variable ADC (Table). Most tumefactive demyelinating lesions have elevated ADC values, although occasionally, acute demyelinating lesions may have areas of reduced ADC values (Fig 9b) (33).

Perfusion Imaging.— The typical perfusion imaging feature for tumefactive demyelinating lesions is a low rTBV (Table). In tumefactive demyelinating lesions, rTBV values tend to be lower than those in normal brain tissue (33). High-grade primary neoplasms and metastatic lesions have higher rTBV values than do tumefactive demyelinating lesions (Fig 9c) (23).

Brain Abscesses
Brain abscesses are rare in immunocompetent individuals. In adults, ear and sinus infections are the most common predisposing conditions for brain abscesses. On the other hand, brain abscesses may develop from hematogenous spread of infection from a distant site such as a pyogenic lung process. In addition, pulmonary arterio-venous malformation is a predisposing condition for brain abscesses.

MR Spectroscopy.— Typical MR spectroscopic features of brain abscesses include elevated peaks of amino acid, lactate, alanine, acetate, pyruvate, and succinate and absent signals of NAA, creatine, and choline (Table, Fig 10).


Figure 10
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  		Figure 10a.  Left frontal abscess in a 57-year-old man. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a rim-enhancing mass with surrounding edema. (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows restricted diffusion with ADC measurements as low as 0.94 x 10–3 mm2/sec, corresponding to the nonenhancing portion of the abscess. (c) Short-echo MR spectrum shows depression of the NAA (at 2.02 ppm), choline (Cho) (at 3.2 ppm), and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks, as well as elevation of the amino acid (at 0.9 ppm), lactate (Lac) (at 1.33 ppm), acetate (at 1.9 ppm), and succinate (at 2.4 ppm) peaks. (d) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows no elevation of flow compared with contralateral normal white matter.

 

Figure 10
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  		Figure 10b.  Left frontal abscess in a 57-year-old man. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a rim-enhancing mass with surrounding edema. (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows restricted diffusion with ADC measurements as low as 0.94 x 10–3 mm2/sec, corresponding to the nonenhancing portion of the abscess. (c) Short-echo MR spectrum shows depression of the NAA (at 2.02 ppm), choline (Cho) (at 3.2 ppm), and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks, as well as elevation of the amino acid (at 0.9 ppm), lactate (Lac) (at 1.33 ppm), acetate (at 1.9 ppm), and succinate (at 2.4 ppm) peaks. (d) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows no elevation of flow compared with contralateral normal white matter.

 

Figure 10
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  		Figure 10c.  Left frontal abscess in a 57-year-old man. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a rim-enhancing mass with surrounding edema. (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows restricted diffusion with ADC measurements as low as 0.94 x 10–3 mm2/sec, corresponding to the nonenhancing portion of the abscess. (c) Short-echo MR spectrum shows depression of the NAA (at 2.02 ppm), choline (Cho) (at 3.2 ppm), and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks, as well as elevation of the amino acid (at 0.9 ppm), lactate (Lac) (at 1.33 ppm), acetate (at 1.9 ppm), and succinate (at 2.4 ppm) peaks. (d) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows no elevation of flow compared with contralateral normal white matter.

 

Figure 10
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  		Figure 10d.  Left frontal abscess in a 57-year-old man. (a) Axial postcontrast T1-weighted MR image demonstrates a rim-enhancing mass with surrounding edema. (b) Axial diffusion-weighted image shows restricted diffusion with ADC measurements as low as 0.94 x 10–3 mm2/sec, corresponding to the nonenhancing portion of the abscess. (c) Short-echo MR spectrum shows depression of the NAA (at 2.02 ppm), choline (Cho) (at 3.2 ppm), and creatine (Cr) (at 3.0 ppm) peaks, as well as elevation of the amino acid (at 0.9 ppm), lactate (Lac) (at 1.33 ppm), acetate (at 1.9 ppm), and succinate (at 2.4 ppm) peaks. (d) Axial arterial spin-labeled generated cerebral blood flow map shows no elevation of flow compared with contralateral normal white matter.

 
Abscesses have a distinct spectroscopic pattern that allows differentiation from other entities. For instance, elevation of choline (34–36) and absence of signal from a variety of amino acids, acetate, and succinate (11,36–38) are features that would favor a neoplastic process, whereas the other peaks listed above—alanine, acetate, pyruvate, and succinate—favor abscesses (Figs 1c, 2d, 10c).

MR spectroscopy may shed light on which organism is responsible for the abscess, because the presence of anaerobic bacteria tends to cause elevated acetate and succinate peaks (Fig 10c), whereas absence of acetate and succinate signals are more likely with obligate aerobes or facultative anaerobes (39,40).

Tuberculous abscesses typically have high lipid and lactate peaks. These abscesses have no peaks for amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) at 0.9 ppm, succinate at 2.41 ppm, acetate at 1.92 ppm, and alanine at 1.48 ppm, in contrast to pyogenic abscesses, which have peaks for all these metabolites.

Diffusion-weighted Imaging.— The typical diffusion-weighted imaging feature for brain abscess is markedly reduced ADC (Table). ADC maps are of great value in distinguishing neoplasms, which more often have facilitated diffusion, from abscesses, which are more likely to have restricted diffusion, in their necrotic portions (Fig 10b) (11,41,42). However, there are some reports of overlapping characteristics. Furthermore, the walls of necrotic or cystic tumors have been shown to have a lower ADC value than that of an abscess (Fig 2b, 10b) (43).

Perfusion Imaging.— The typical perfusion imaging feature for brain abscess is low rTBV (Table). High-grade primary neoplasms and metastases can be differentiated from abscesses with perfusion MR imaging, in which the wall of necrotic or cystic neoplasms tends to have higher rTBV compared with the capsule of an abscess (Figs 1b, 2c, 10d) (43).

Encephalitis
MR Spectroscopy.— Typical proton MR spectroscopic features for encephalitis include elevated peaks of lactate, choline, and myoinositol and reduced NAA signal (Table). Encephalitis tends to resemble low-grade gliomas, with reduction of the NAA signal and elevation of the choline and myoinositol peaks (44). A lactate peak is an inconsistent finding (44). After the initial acute phase of encephalitis, there is gradual normalization of the MR spectrum in about 1 year (45).

Diffusion-weighted Imaging.— The typical diffusion-weighted imaging feature for encephalitis is variable ADC (Table). Encephalitis typically has low ADC values. However, this finding is not as consistent as that seen with infarcted tissue (46). Diffusion-weighted imaging may also shed light on the severity of the process, because fulminant cases are more likely to cause restricted diffusion (44).

Perfusion Imaging.— The typical perfusion imaging feature for encephalitis is unknown. To our knowledge, there has been no report in the literature on perfusion MR imaging of encephalitis. A case report of perfusion computed tomography suggests elevated perfusion in the acute phase (47). The nuclear medicine literature describes normal to elevated perfusion initially, followed by abnormal reduction in the chronic phase (48).


   Integrated Conventional and Advanced MR Imaging Diagnostic Approach to Intraaxial Masses
Top
 Abstract
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Introduction
 Advanced MR Imaging Features...
 Integrated Conventional and...
Conclusions
 References
 
Figure 11 shows an algorithm designed to help classify unknown intraaxial lesions in immuno-competent adults. Low-grade primary neoplasm, high-grade primary neoplasm, metastatic neoplasm, lymphoma, tumefactive demyelinating lesion, abscess, and encephalitis are common intraaxial masses that represent the diagnostic endpoints of this algorithm.


Figure 11
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  		Figure 11.  Algorithm for unknown intracranial mass classification. This practical MR imaging algorithm is composed of a series of nodes or questions that would suggest a diagnosis if the paths are followed to the bottom. Cho = choline, High GN = high-grade neoplasm, Low GN = low-grade neoplasm, TDL = tumefactive demyelinating lesion.

 
The algorithm contains several questions whose answers require information derived from MR imaging studies.

Question 1: Does the Lesion Enhance at Conventional MR Imaging?—
An assessment of whether the lesion is intraaxial or extraaxial is crucial as an initial step. Simple visual inspection is performed to assess for any perceived enhancement.

The general purpose at this point is to discriminate typically nonenhancing lesions such as low-grade neoplasms and encephalitis from typically enhancing lesions such as abscesses, lymphomas, tumefactive demy