(Radiographics. 2000;20:751-766.)
© RSNA, 2000
Gallbladder Stones: Imaging and Intervention1
Gregory A. Bortoff, MD, PhD,
Michael Y. M. Chen, MD,
David J. Ott, MD,
Neil T. Wolfman, MD and
William D. Routh, MD
1 From the Department of Radiology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd, Winston-Salem, NC 27157-1088. Presented as a scientific exhibit at the 1998 RSNA scientific assembly. Received March 23, 1999; revision requested May 4 and received June 21; accepted June 21. Address reprint requests to M.Y.M.C.
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Abstract
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Imaging of the gallbladder for cholelithiasis and its complications has changed dramatically in recent decades along with expansion of interventional techniques related to the disease. Ultrasonography (US) is the method of choice for detection of gallstones. The characteristic US findings of gallstones are a highly reflective echo from the anterior surface of the gallstone, mobility of the gallstone on repositioning the patient, and marked posterior acoustic shadowing. Oral cholecystography remains an excellent method of gallstone detection, but its role has been limited due to the advantages of US. Most people with cholelithiasis will not experience symptoms or complications related to gallstones. When biliary colic does occur, it is typically caused by transient obstruction of the cystic duct by a stone. The primary imaging modality in suspected acute calculous cholecystitis is usually US or cholescintigraphy. Detection of gallstones alone does not permit a diagnosis of acute cholecystitis; however, secondary US findings provide more specific information. In detection of choledocholithiasis, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography are superior to US. In certain clinical settings, interventional radiologic procedures have become an important alternative to surgery in the treatment of gallstones and their complications; techniques include percutaneous cholecystostomy and gallstone removal.
Index Terms: Bile ducts, calculi, 76.289 • Cholecystitis, 762.285 • Gallbladder, calculi, 762.289 • Gallbladder, interventional procedures, 762.1228
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Introduction
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Approximately 25 million adults in the United States have gallstones (1). Women are affected more commonly than men, with nearly 40% of women in the ninth decade of life having gallstones. The prevalence increases with age in both sexes. In brief, the pathogenesis of gallstones is related to supersaturation of bile constituents, most notably cholesterol, and likely related to defects in biliary lipid metabolism. Biliary dysmotility and prolonged intestinal transit also likely play a role (2,3). These factors may be aggravated by diet, a sedentary lifestyle, and a genetic predisposition to stone formation. An increased prevalence of cholelithiasis has been reported in association with obesity, diabetes, use of oral contraceptives, ileal disease, use of certain medications, total parenteral nutrition, cirrhosis, and spinal cord injury (4).
Cholesterol is the main component in approximately 80% of gallstones, with 10% being pure cholesterol. Pigment stones have by definition less than 25% cholesterol, and the major component is calcium bilirubinate. Calcium carbonate is a less common constituent (5). As stones degenerate, nitrogen gas may collect in central fissures; this process may produce the classic "Mercedes-Benz" sign on plain radiographs.
Approximately 15%–20% of gallstones contain enough calcium to be visible on plain radiographs (1). Therefore, plain radiography is a poor screening examination for gallstones. Oral cholecystography was introduced in 1924 and remained the mainstay of radiographic diagnosis of gallbladder disease for decades. Although still used, oral cholecystography has largely been replaced by ultrasonography (US) for evaluation of cholelithiasis and its associated complications, most notably acute cholecystitis.
Hepatobiliary scintigraphy, computed tomography (CT), endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging have essentially no role as primary imaging modalities for detection of gallstones but are important in the evaluation of associated complications (eg, acute cholecystitis [Fig 1], pancreatitis, and biliary obstruction).
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Figure 1a. Acute cholecystitis. (a) CT scan shows gallbladder wall thickening (arrow) and pericholecystic inflammation (arrowhead). However, no gallstones are visible. (b) Transverse US scan clearly shows gallstones (arrow) and posterior shadowing (S).
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Figure 1b. Acute cholecystitis. (a) CT scan shows gallbladder wall thickening (arrow) and pericholecystic inflammation (arrowhead). However, no gallstones are visible. (b) Transverse US scan clearly shows gallstones (arrow) and posterior shadowing (S).
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In this article, we review the imaging of cholelithiasis and complications of cholelithiasis and provide an update on current radiologic interventions for cholelithiasis.
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Imaging of Cholelithiasis
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US remains the method of choice for detection of gallstones, offering several advantages: high sensitivity and accuracy ( > 95%) (6), noninvasiveness, the option of performing a bedside examination, lack of ionizing radiation, relatively low cost, and the ability to evaluate adjacent organs. The characteristic findings of gallstones at US are a highly reflective echo from the anterior surface of the gallstone, mobility of the gallstone on repositioning the patient (typically in a decubitus position), and marked posterior acoustic shadowing (Fig 2). The latter finding is extremely important in regard to the specificity of the technique because nonshadowing structures are considerably less likely than shadowing structures to represent gallstones (7) (Table 1) (Figs 3, 4). When the gallbladder is filled with stones, the resulting appearance is termed the wall-echo-shadow sign (8) (Fig 5). The anterior wall of the gallbladder is echogenic, below which is a thin, dark line of bile; finally, there is a highly echogenic line of superficial stones with associated posterior shadowing. The deeper stones and posterior gallbladder wall are not visible.
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Figure 2a. Typical US appearance of gallstones. (a) Oblique US scan shows highly reflective echoes within the gallbladder (arrows), which indicate gallstones. Note the marked posterior shadowing (S). (b) Oblique US scan obtained after repositioning the patient shows mobility of the gallstones (arrows).
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Figure 2b. Typical US appearance of gallstones. (a) Oblique US scan shows highly reflective echoes within the gallbladder (arrows), which indicate gallstones. Note the marked posterior shadowing (S). (b) Oblique US scan obtained after repositioning the patient shows mobility of the gallstones (arrows).
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Figure 3a. Gallbladder mass that should not be confused with gallstones at US. (a) Longitudinal US scan shows an echogenic mass (curved arrow) filling the gallbladder lumen with evidence of gallstones as well (straight arrow). Note the lack of shadowing by the majority of the mass. (b, c) CT scans show a gallstone (arrowhead) and an enhancing mass (arrows) located in the gallbladder fossa, partially surrounding the duodenum (D). Gallbladder carcinoma was found at surgery.
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Figure 3b. Gallbladder mass that should not be confused with gallstones at US. (a) Longitudinal US scan shows an echogenic mass (curved arrow) filling the gallbladder lumen with evidence of gallstones as well (straight arrow). Note the lack of shadowing by the majority of the mass. (b, c) CT scans show a gallstone (arrowhead) and an enhancing mass (arrows) located in the gallbladder fossa, partially surrounding the duodenum (D). Gallbladder carcinoma was found at surgery.
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Figure 3c. Gallbladder mass that should not be confused with gallstones at US. (a) Longitudinal US scan shows an echogenic mass (curved arrow) filling the gallbladder lumen with evidence of gallstones as well (straight arrow). Note the lack of shadowing by the majority of the mass. (b, c) CT scans show a gallstone (arrowhead) and an enhancing mass (arrows) located in the gallbladder fossa, partially surrounding the duodenum (D). Gallbladder carcinoma was found at surgery.
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Figure 4. Gallbladder masses that should not be confused with gallstones at US. Longitudinal US scan shows two nonshadowing, nonmobile echogenic masses in the gallbladder (arrows), which represent metastatic melanoma.
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Figure 5. Wall-echo-shadow sign. Longitudinal US scan of a gallbladder filled with gallstones shows the classic wall-echo-shadow sign. The anterior wall of the gallbladder is echogenic (solid arrow). A thin layer of bile immediately underneath the anterior wall is seen as a black line (open arrow), and the most superficial gallstones are seen as an echogenic layer beneath the bile (arrowheads). Intense shadowing (S) obscures the deeper stones and the posterior gallbladder wall.
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Oral cholecystography remains an excellent method of gallstone detection, with sensitivities close to those of US (9). Furthermore, oral cholecystography allows better determination of the number and size of gallstones than US and can demonstrate cystic duct patency. Gallbladder contractility can be determined by administration of a fatty meal and reimaging. However, oral cholecystography has several disadvantages relative to US: (a) adjacent organs cannot be evaluated, (b) nonvisualization of the gallbladder is nonspecific and can be attributable to multiple factors, (c) patients are exposed to ionizing radiation, and (d) bowel gas can obscure the gallbladder and yield false-positive or false-negative results (Fig 6). The role of oral cholecystography has been limited due to the advantages of US in detecting gallstones and related disease. Oral cholecystography remains useful in certain circumstances, such as in patients being considered for orally administered bile acid therapy or contact dissolution. In these patients, oral cholecystography can allow accurate determination of stone size, composition, and burden and provide information on gallbladder contractility (10).
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Figure 6a. Bowel gas obscuring gallstones. (a) Frontal upper right spot image from initial oral cholecystography shows bowel gas superimposed over the lower aspect of the gallbladder. (b) Oral cholecystogram obtained after repositioning the patient clearly shows a large gallstone in the fundus of the gallbladder (arrow).
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Figure 6b. Bowel gas obscuring gallstones. (a) Frontal upper right spot image from initial oral cholecystography shows bowel gas superimposed over the lower aspect of the gallbladder. (b) Oral cholecystogram obtained after repositioning the patient clearly shows a large gallstone in the fundus of the gallbladder (arrow).
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Complications of Cholelithiasis
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Most people with cholelithiasis will not experience symptoms or complications related to gallstones. When biliary colic does occur, it is most often caused by transient obstruction of the cystic duct by a stone. The pain typically lasts 1–3 hours and is often accompanied by nausea and vomiting. When the stone falls back into the gallbladder or passes into the common bile duct (CBD), the pain usually subsides (Table 2). However, choledocholithiasis can also be accompanied by biliary colic.
Acute cholecystitis is uncommon in patients with gallstones who were previously asymptomatic; rather, it is more commonly seen in patients who previously experienced bouts of biliary colic (1). The primary imaging modality in suspected acute calculous cholecystitis is usually US (Fig 7) or cholescintigraphy. Both tests offer excellent sensitivity and accuracy. In addition, these tests can be complementary when the results of one or the other are equivocal (Fig 8).
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Figure 7. Acute cholecystitis in a patient with right upper quadrant pain. Transverse US scan shows marked thickening (8 mm) of the gallbladder wall (cursors). Mobile gallstones layering dependently are also seen (arrow). There was maximum tenderness during compression with the transducer directly over the gallbladder, a positive Murphy sign.
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Figure 8a. Acute cholecystitis. (a) Longitudinal US scan shows a nonmobile echogenic focus (arrow) within the gallbladder with subtle shadowing. The patient had recently eaten, which may explain the wall thickening (4 mm). Diagnostic considerations included adherent calculi and cholesterol crystals or polyps. Cholescintigraphy was recommended. (b) Cholescintigram obtained after administration of morphine and with the patient in the supine position shows bowel activity (arrow), but the gallbladder is not seen. The diagnosis of acute cholecystitis was confirmed at surgery. Pathologic analysis also revealed a small gallstone and a small focus of ectopic pancreas in the gallbladder wall.
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Figure 8b. Acute cholecystitis. (a) Longitudinal US scan shows a nonmobile echogenic focus (arrow) within the gallbladder with subtle shadowing. The patient had recently eaten, which may explain the wall thickening (4 mm). Diagnostic considerations included adherent calculi and cholesterol crystals or polyps. Cholescintigraphy was recommended. (b) Cholescintigram obtained after administration of morphine and with the patient in the supine position shows bowel activity (arrow), but the gallbladder is not seen. The diagnosis of acute cholecystitis was confirmed at surgery. Pathologic analysis also revealed a small gallstone and a small focus of ectopic pancreas in the gallbladder wall.
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Detection of gallstones alone does not permit a diagnosis of acute cholecystitis. However, secondary US findings provide more specific information (Table 3). Ralls et al (11) found that different combinations of US findings gave the following positive predictive values: (a) positive Murphy sign (maximum tenderness during compression with the transducer directly over the gallbladder) plus gallstones, 92%; and (b) thickened gallbladder wall ( > 3 mm) plus gallstones, 95%. Therefore, false-positive diagnoses are not common but do occasionally occur (Fig 9). Negative predictive values were also determined, as follows: (a) negative Murphy sign and no gallstones, 95%; and (b) normal gallbladder wall thickness and no gallstones, 97%. Patients with one of the complications of acute cholecystitis, gangrenous cholecystitis, may demonstrate a positive Murphy sign in only 33% of cases (12). CT can also allow diagnostic imaging of acute cholecystitis (Fig 10) and may be useful when US results are equivocal. In addition, CT can show increased attenuation in adjacent liver tissue during the arterial phase (Fig 11); this finding has been reported in patients with hypervascular gallbladder disease and has been attributed to increased blood flow in the cystic vein (13). However, CT does not allow assessment for the Murphy sign, and noncalcified gallstones are not reliably demonstrated.
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Figure 9a. False-positive diagnosis of acute cholecystitis. (a) Longitudinal US scan of the gallbladder shows a single gallstone (arrowhead). There was extreme tenderness during compression over the gallbladder, a positive Murphy sign. The thickness of the gallbladder wall is normal. (b) CT scan obtained soon afterward shows a normal-appearing gallbladder. However, a hematoma is seen in the right rectus abdominis muscle (arrow), accounting for the tenderness during compression over the gallbladder. Review of the US scan (a) revealed a superficial hypoechoic mass at the top of the image (arrow), a finding that corresponds to the hematoma. The patient's symptoms abated when the hematoma resolved.
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Figure 9b. False-positive diagnosis of acute cholecystitis. (a) Longitudinal US scan of the gallbladder shows a single gallstone (arrowhead). There was extreme tenderness during compression over the gallbladder, a positive Murphy sign. The thickness of the gallbladder wall is normal. (b) CT scan obtained soon afterward shows a normal-appearing gallbladder. However, a hematoma is seen in the right rectus abdominis muscle (arrow), accounting for the tenderness during compression over the gallbladder. Review of the US scan (a) revealed a superficial hypoechoic mass at the top of the image (arrow), a finding that corresponds to the hematoma. The patient's symptoms abated when the hematoma resolved.
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Figure 10a. Acute cholecystitis. (a) CT scan obtained at the level of the gallbladder shows cholelithiasis (arrowhead), poor definition of the gallbladder wall, and subtle pericholecystic inflammation (arrows). (b) CT scan obtained slightly superior to a shows more obvious pericholecystic inflammation (arrow).
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Figure 10b. Acute cholecystitis. (a) CT scan obtained at the level of the gallbladder shows cholelithiasis (arrowhead), poor definition of the gallbladder wall, and subtle pericholecystic inflammation (arrows). (b) CT scan obtained slightly superior to a shows more obvious pericholecystic inflammation (arrow).
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Figure 11. Transient increased attenuation in the liver adjacent to the gallbladder in a patient with pathologically proved acute cholecystitis. Contrast material-enhanced CT scan shows increased hepatic attenuation adjacent to the gallbladder (arrowheads). Note the thickening of the gallbladder wall.
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Complications of acute cholecystitis include the following: (a) Emphysematous cholecystitis is characterized by gas-forming organisms, which cause gas to collect in the wall and lumen of the gallbladder, and is commonly seen in diabetic patients (Fig 12). Gallstones are found in only approximately 50% of cases of emphysematous cholecystitis; instead, the pathogenesis is related to small-vessel disease (eg, diabetes). (b) Hemorrhagic cholecystitis is characterized by significant intraluminal hemorrhage, and abundant nonshadowing echoes are often seen in the gallbladder lumen at US (Figs 13, 14). (c) Pericholecystic abscess is the result of a perforation of the gallbladder wall and is usually seen as a fluid collection with internal echoes near the fundus of the gallbladder. Intrahepatic abscesses can also occur (Fig 15).
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Figure 12a. Emphysematous cholecystitis. (a) Plain radiograph shows curvilinear gas collections in the right upper quadrant (arrows), which represent gas within the gallbladder wall. (b) CT scan obtained in another patient shows air within the gallbladder wall and the gallbladder lumen (arrow).
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Figure 12b. Emphysematous cholecystitis. (a) Plain radiograph shows curvilinear gas collections in the right upper quadrant (arrows), which represent gas within the gallbladder wall. (b) CT scan obtained in another patient shows air within the gallbladder wall and the gallbladder lumen (arrow).
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Figure 13. Hemorrhagic cholecystitis. Longitudinal US scan shows mobile foci of increased echogenicity within the gallbladder fossa (arrow) with posterior shadowing (S), findings consistent with gallstones. In addition, there are foci of increased echogenicity without shadowing (arrowhead), which correspond to hemorrhage.
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Figure 14a. Hemorrhagic cholecystitis. CT scans show diffuse increased attenuation in the gallbladder lumen, which represents hemorrhage, surrounding multiple round areas of decreased attenuation, which represent gallstones (arrow). Note the subtle pericholecystic inflammation.
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Figure 14b. Hemorrhagic cholecystitis. CT scans show diffuse increased attenuation in the gallbladder lumen, which represents hemorrhage, surrounding multiple round areas of decreased attenuation, which represent gallstones (arrow). Note the subtle pericholecystic inflammation.
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Figure 15a. Hepatic abscess related to acute cholecystitis. (a) Transverse US scan shows a hypoechoic mass (arrow) in the liver near the gallbladder (GB). Note the thickening of the gallbladder wall (arrowhead). Cholelithiasis was present as well (not shown). (b) CT scan shows a low-attenuation lesion in the liver adjacent to the gallbladder with subtle peripheral enhancement (arrow). The diagnosis of acute cholecystitis with perforation and an intrahepatic abscess was confirmed at surgery.
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Figure 15b. Hepatic abscess related to acute cholecystitis. (a) Transverse US scan shows a hypoechoic mass (arrow) in the liver near the gallbladder (GB). Note the thickening of the gallbladder wall (arrowhead). Cholelithiasis was present as well (not shown). (b) CT scan shows a low-attenuation lesion in the liver adjacent to the gallbladder with subtle peripheral enhancement (arrow). The diagnosis of acute cholecystitis with perforation and an intrahepatic abscess was confirmed at surgery.
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Further complications of cholelithiasis include pancreatitis (Fig 16), duodenitis (Fig 17), biliary fistula (Fig 18), gallstone ileus (Fig 19), and Mirizzi syndrome, in which inflammation related to a stone impacted in the cystic duct causes narrowing of the CBD and subsequent biliary obstruction. Cholelithiasis is found in at least two-thirds of patients with gallbladder carcinoma and is frequently associated with cholecystitis, thus suggesting that chronic irritation is a causative factor (15).
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Figure 16a. Gallstone pancreatitis in a 20-year-old woman with no history of alcohol abuse. (a) Longitudinal US scan shows multiple gallstones within the gallbladder (arrow); however, there was no evidence of acute cholecystitis. The pancreas and CBD are poorly visualized. US is commonly performed in this setting to evaluate for gallstones as a possible cause of pancreatitis. (b) Follow-up CT scan shows cholelithiasis (black arrowhead) and extensive peripancreatic inflammation (arrows). Note the normal-sized distal CBD (white arrowhead). Given the patient's age, lack of history of alcohol abuse, and clinical presentation, a diagnosis of gallstone pancreatitis was made. The patient underwent cholecystectomy and has been symptom free for over 1 year.
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Figure 16b. Gallstone pancreatitis in a 20-year-old woman with no history of alcohol abuse. (a) Longitudinal US scan shows multiple gallstones within the gallbladder (arrow); however, there was no evidence of acute cholecystitis. The pancreas and CBD are poorly visualized. US is commonly performed in this setting to evaluate for gallstones as a possible cause of pancreatitis. (b) Follow-up CT scan shows cholelithiasis (black arrowhead) and extensive peripancreatic inflammation (arrows). Note the normal-sized distal CBD (white arrowhead). Given the patient's age, lack of history of alcohol abuse, and clinical presentation, a diagnosis of gallstone pancreatitis was made. The patient underwent cholecystectomy and has been symptom free for over 1 year.
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Figure 17a. Acute cholecystitis and duodenitis. (a) CT scan shows cholelithiasis (straight arrow), gallbladder wall thickening, and pericholecystic inflammation (curved arrow). (b) CT scan obtained inferior to a shows extensive inflammation (arrowheads) extending to and involving the proximal duodenum (D). Surgery revealed gangrenous cholecystitis and extensive duodenitis.
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Figure 17b. Acute cholecystitis and duodenitis. (a) CT scan shows cholelithiasis (straight arrow), gallbladder wall thickening, and pericholecystic inflammation (curved arrow). (b) CT scan obtained inferior to a shows extensive inflammation (arrowheads) extending to and involving the proximal duodenum (D). Surgery revealed gangrenous cholecystitis and extensive duodenitis.
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Figure 18. Biliary fistula. Diagram shows the routes by which gallstones can erode into adjacent hollow visceral organs. Most commonly, the gallstones migrate into the duodenum (D), but any of the routes shown are possible. Gallstones larger than 2.5 cm in diameter can lodge in the terminal ileum, leading to gallstone ileus; this entity is reported to account for 20% of intestinal obstructions in patients over the age of 65 years. Occasionally, the gallstone lodges more proximally in the intestine. Bouveret syndrome is a rare form of proximal obstruction caused by a large gallstone that has usually migrated through route 1. The gallstone then becomes lodged in the duodenum, most often at the level of the bulb, resulting in a gastric outlet obstruction. C = colon, G = gallbladder, S = stomach.
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Figure 19a. Gallstone ileus. (a) Image from a small-bowel follow-through study shows a dilated small intestine and at least two intraluminal filling defects (arrows). Also, contrast material opacifies a communication with the biliary tree (arrowhead). (b) CT scan shows air in the biliary tree (arrow) as a result of the choloenteric fistula. (Reprinted, with permission, from reference 14.)
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Figure 19b. Gallstone ileus. (a) Image from a small-bowel follow-through study shows a dilated small intestine and at least two intraluminal filling defects (arrows). Also, contrast material opacifies a communication with the biliary tree (arrowhead). (b) CT scan shows air in the biliary tree (arrow) as a result of the choloenteric fistula. (Reprinted, with permission, from reference 14.)
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Choledocholithiasis is another complication of gallstones. Although CBD stones can be demonstrated at US (Fig 20), US has proved to be relatively insensitive in detection of CBD stones, with sensitivities ranging from 22% to 75% (16–18). Traditionally, ERCP has been the standard of reference for detection of CBD stones and evaluation of suspected biliary obstruction (Fig 21). However, MR cholangiopancreatography is also excellent for detection of CBD stones (Fig 22), with a sensitivity and accuracy approximately equal to those of ERCP: 88%–95% and 89%–96%, respectively (19–21). Although the spatial resolution of MR imaging may be somewhat limited for detection of small stones (eg, < 3 mm in diameter) (22), at some institutions it has begun to replace ERCP for imaging of suspected CBD disorders in patients in whom intervention is not anticipated, and it is likely that this trend will continue (20).
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Figure 21a. Choledocholithiasis. (a) CT scan obtained through the distal CBD shows a metallic clip and an adjacent area of soft-tissue attenuation in the region of the CBD (arrowhead). (b) ERCP image shows a mobile round filling defect (arrowhead) surrounding a metallic clip within a markedly dilated CBD. At endoscopy, a stone that had formed around the surgical clip and caused intermittent biliary obstruction was removed.
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Figure 21b. Choledocholithiasis. (a) CT scan obtained through the distal CBD shows a metallic clip and an adjacent area of soft-tissue attenuation in the region of the CBD (arrowhead). (b) ERCP image shows a mobile round filling defect (arrowhead) surrounding a metallic clip within a markedly dilated CBD. At endoscopy, a stone that had formed around the surgical clip and caused intermittent biliary obstruction was removed.
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Figure 22. CBD stones in a patient who had undergone cholecystectomy. Coronal single-shot fast spin-echo MR cholangiopancreatogram shows multiple gallstones (arrows) within a markedly dilated CBD (30 mm wide).
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Current Radiologic Interventions for Cholelithiasis
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Although laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the treatment of choice for symptomatic gallstones, several nonsurgical techniques such as percutaneous contact dissolution have been developed for treatment of gallstones (Table 4) (23,24). Unfortunately, most of these techniques have been largely abandoned due to the relatively frequent recurrence of gallstones. However, one radiologic interventional procedure that has evolved and continues to serve a role in management of cholelithiasis and its complications is percutaneous cholecystostomy.
The clinical setting in which percutaneous cholecystostomy is most often performed is acute cholecystitis in a patient who is a poor surgical risk. This procedure allows decompression of the inflamed gallbladder and provides a potential route for stone extraction. The tract chosen depends on the anatomy and whether stone extraction is planned. A transhepatic route is associated with less risk of bile leakage, whereas a subhepatic or transperitoneal route is preferred for stone extraction through a larger tract.
The gallbladder is visualized with US guidance or fluoroscopy after oral administration of contrast medium. The gallbladder can then be entered by using the Seldinger technique, with tract dilation and catheter placement over a guide wire, or a direct trocar technique. Gallstones can be removed with baskets and graspers (Fig 23). Although success rates for percutaneous stone removal are high, the potential for gallstone recurrence remains, and there is a slightly increased risk of gallbladder carcinoma related to chronic inflammation.
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Figure 23a. Cholecystostomy and percutaneous stone removal in an elderly patient whose condition was too unstable for cholecystectomy. A Foley catheter was surgically placed within the gallbladder. (a) Oblique percutaneous cholecystogram obtained after injection of contrast material via the catheter shows multiple filling defects consistent with gallstones. The surgeons subsequently requested percutaneous stone removal. (b) Image obtained with the patient in the supine position shows a large sheath (arrows), which was exchanged for the catheter over a guide wire. A basket catheter has been advanced into the sheath. Arrowheads indicate the basket. (c) Image shows sequential removal of gallstones with the grasping technique. Arrow indicates a stone within the basket.
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Figure 23b. Cholecystostomy and percutaneous stone removal in an elderly patient whose condition was too unstable for cholecystectomy. A Foley catheter was surgically placed within the gallbladder. (a) Oblique percutaneous cholecystogram obtained after injection of contrast material via the catheter shows multiple filling defects consistent with gallstones. The surgeons subsequently requested percutaneous stone removal. (b) Image obtained with the patient in the supine position shows a large sheath (arrows), which was exchanged for the catheter over a guide wire. A basket catheter has been advanced into the sheath. Arrowheads indicate the basket. (c) Image shows sequential removal of gallstones with the grasping technique. Arrow indicates a stone within the basket.
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Figure 23c. Cholecystostomy and percutaneous stone removal in an elderly patient whose condition was too unstable for cholecystectomy. A Foley catheter was surgically placed within the gallbladder. (a) Oblique percutaneous cholecystogram obtained after injection of contrast material via the catheter shows multiple filling defects consistent with gallstones. The surgeons subsequently requested percutaneous stone removal. (b) Image obtained with the patient in the supine position shows a large sheath (arrows), which was exchanged for the catheter over a guide wire. A basket catheter has been advanced into the sheath. Arrowheads indicate the basket. (c) Image shows sequential removal of gallstones with the grasping technique. Arrow indicates a stone within the basket.
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Conclusion
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With recent and ongoing improvements in MR imaging techniques, advances in US equipment, and an increasing spectrum of percutaneous biliary interventions, radiologists will continue to play an integral role in diagnosis and treatment of gallstone-related diseases.
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Footnotes
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Abbreviations: CBD = common bile duct,
ERCP = endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography
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References
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Abstract
Introduction
